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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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Keyword:	KEYWORD - - alters incoming sensory sensations - alters mood or emotions - alters physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination - long-term effects: increased risk of heart disease, coronary thrombosis and peptic ulcers-discuss also the addictive properties of nicotine and the further risks of associated with smoking tabacco - short-term effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure and reduction of urine output, as well as stimulating effects - the carbon atom and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid - two carbon atoms joined by single, double and triple bonds -ideal gas equation -include relevant equations -mr - -+ loss of cooh -mr - -- loss of ch -mr - -- loss of ch or cho -mr - -= loss of cho a apply ka or pka in calculations a buffer resists change in ph when a small amount of a strong acid or base is added-suitable examples include a calculate the ph of a specified buffer system a calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations a calculations involving acids and bases a chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non-chiral molecule into just the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture-it works by attaching itself to the non-chiral molecules to create the stereochemical cond a deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values a define ph, poh and pkw a define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only a define the terms rate constant and order of reaction a define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex a derive the rate expression for a reaction from data a describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound a describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound a describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms a describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution a describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence a describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary a describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex a determination of structure a determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values a distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes a draw and analyse graphical representation for ze a draw and analyse graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions a lewis acid-base reaction involves the formation of a new covalent bond in which both electrons are provided by one species-such bonds are called dative covalent bonds a nucleophilic substitution reaction a pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line-for example, chlorine can be shown as : a person who developes tolerance requires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose-stress that the difference between the main effect and the side effects is relative-for example, morphine is often us a rate expression a reaction mechanism a relates to the geometric requirements of the collisions -see - a significant difference between the two values indicates covalent character a simple diagram of a single beam mass spectrometer is required-the following stages of operation should be considered : vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection and detection a state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb a state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques a state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression a state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- absorption of IR accuracy and error acid acid -base titrations acid equilibria acid hydrolysis acid rain acid-base titrations acidic chloride of element Q acidic oxides acidity and ionic radius of cation acids and bases acrolene activation energy addition polymerisation of alkenes addition reactions air pollution AlCl3 alcohol alcohol - oxidation alcohol - secondary alcohol - solubility alcohol - to halogenoalkane alcohol oxidation yield alcohol plus excess concentrated sulphuric acid alcohol reacting with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid alcoholic ammonia + organic compound alcohols aldehyde aldehyde and ketone aldehyde plus hydrogen cyanide aldehyde: aldehydes alkali metals -li, na and k- with water and with halogens -cl and br- alkaline oxides alkanes alkanes - detergents alkene alkene production from chloro alkane alkenes alkenes and bromine alkenes and hydrogen bromide all combinations should be covered : strong acid + strong base, strong acid + weak base, weak acid + strong all these intermolecular forces are weaker than covalent bonds-for substances of similar molar mass, hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole attractions which are stronger than van der waals forces-van der waals forces arise from the electrostati allotropes of carbon along with alkanes and alkenes, compounds containing one or more functional groups have been chosen to introduce students to : alternative to CFCs alternatives include hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons -hfcs--include toxicity, flammability, the relative weakness of the c-cl bond and the ability to absorb infrared radiation aluminium aluminium chloride aluminium chloride as catalyst amine ph ammonia ammonia and chlorine ammonia plus sulphur dioxide ammonium chloride/ammonia solution and ethanoic acid/sodium ethanoate-blood is an example of a buffer solution ammonium compounds ammonium ion ammonium nitrate ammonium sulphate liberating ammonia amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure-amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are known as sympathomimetric drugs an electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy-the diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte an increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state -increased distance between particles-, increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles-an increase in the number of particles in the ga analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution analyze data from rate experiments analyze theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values and be able to calculate molar volume and to match the fingerprint region to a known spectrum anthropogenic change antiviral drugs may work by altering the cells genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply-alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell application apply avogadros law to calculate reacting volumes of gases apply ka or pka in calculations apply the aufbau principle for an atom up to z = , eg for z = the electronic configuration is sspspsd or {ar} sd or {ar} ds-exceptions to this rule are not expected apply the aufbau principle to electron configurations apply the ideal gas equation in calculations apply the state symbols -s-, -l-, -g- and -aq- appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics and -possible examples: iron -ii- and -iii-, manganese-ii- and -vii-, chromium-iii- and -vi-, copper-i- and -ii- oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions arguments for legalization include the ability of cannabis to offer relief for certain diseases-arguments against legalization include the possible harmful effects and the possibility of cannabis users moving on to harder drugs aromatic amine arrhenius equation : aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks-the disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and reyes syndrome in children -a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder--para astatine at low doses a depressant may exert little or no effect-at moderate doses the compound may induce sedation-soothing, reduction of anxiety--at higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death-depressants are often prescri atmospheric chemistry atmospheric pollution atom economy atomic radius atomic radius ionic radius atomic structure atomic structure ions atomisation attraction for bond pairs aufbau principle autocatalysis autocatalytic reaction avagadro constant average bond energies - enthalpy change avogadro avogadros constant   describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating   distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell ¯b describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath and in the blood or urine · -mr - -+ loss of cooh · -mr - -- loss of ch · -mr - -- loss of ch or cho · -mr - -= loss of cho · important reaction types such as addition, substitution, oxidation, condensation, esterification and polymerization · interrelationships involving significant functional groups · this is expressed in the following scheme : b analgesics b anesthetics b antacids b antibacterials b antivirals b calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anesthetic mixture b compare amphetamines and adrenaline b compare broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics b compare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action b compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine b compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate, heroin b depressants b describe and explain the different ways that analgesics prevent pain b describe the different methods of administering drugs b describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work b describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine b describe the effects of depressants b describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide-lsd-, mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol-thc- b describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action b describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs b describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer b describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol -acetaminophen- b discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock b discuss terms lethal dosage -ld- tolerance, and side effects b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane b discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics b discuss the arguments for and against legalization of cannabis b discuss the difficulties associated with solving aids problems b discuss the importance of chirality in drug action b discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption b discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol b discuss the structural similarities and differences betwem lsd, mescaline, and psilocybin b explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain b explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesis new drugs b list other commonly used depressants and describe their structure b list the effects of drugs and medicines b list the physiological effects of stimulants b mind-altering drugs b outline the historical development of penicillins b outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products b pharmaceutical products b state and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases b state how viruses are different from bacteria b stereochemistry in drug action and design b stimulants b-aq- + ho--l- ? bh+-aq- + oh--aq- -base hydrolysis- balance chemical equations when all reactants and products are given balance redox equations in acid solution balancing equations barium compounds base base and weak acid + weak base bases benzene boiling point and bonding boiling point trends boiling temperatures boltzmann boltzmann distribution bond angle bond enthalpies bond enthalpies are quoted for the gaseous state and should be recognised as average values obtained from a number of similar compounds-cross reference with bond enthalpy bond length bond strength bonding bonding and electronegativity bonding in ammonium ion bonding in carbon bonding in hydrogen bonding in iodine bonding in magnesium oxide bonding in SiCl4 bonding strength bonds - electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei born haber cycle boron trichloride boron trifluoroide both methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed breaking hydrogen bonds breathalyser brine bromination bromination of alkanes bromine bromo-compounds bron haber cycle bronsted lowry theory bronsted-lowry acids and bases buckminsterfullerene buffer solutions burning coal Ca + water cadmium - metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments caffeine is a respiratory stimulant-when consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness-it is a weak diuretic-both caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group calcium and its compounds calcium nitrate - thermal decomposition calculate and explain non-integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes calculate dgq for a reaction using the equation dgq= d hq-= td sq or by using values of the standard free energy change of formation, dgfq calculate ion concentration calculate kc given all equilibrium concentrations-given kc and other appropriate concentrations, find an equilibrium concentration-kp and ksp are not required, nor is use of the quadratic expression calculate mass formed calculate RAM calculate stoichiometric quantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields calculate the amount-s- of the reactant-s- in excess remaining after the reaction is complete calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in aqueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, quantities of reactants and mass of solution calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using bond enthalpies calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation calculate the heat change when the temperature of a pure substance is altered calculate the number of particles and the amount of substance -in moles- calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge calculate the oxidation number of an element in a compound calculate the ph of a specified buffer system calculate the standard entropy change for a reaction -d sq - using values of absolute entropies calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate {h -aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculate {h+-aq-}, {oh--aq-}, ph and poh from specified concentrations calculating RAM calculation calculation of enthalpy changes calculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression -see --students should state when approximations are used in equilibrium calculations-use of the quadratic expression is not required calculations involving acids and bases calculations will involve the transfer of only one proton-cross reference with calorimetry can be measured, not h for the initial or final state of a system carb acid derivatives carbon and nitrogen orbitals and quantum numbers carbon dioxide carbon footprint carbon neutral fuel carbon-carbon pi bond carbonates carbonyl carbonyls carboxylic acid carboxylic acid: carry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution catalyst catalytic converter catalytic converters catalytic cracking cclf cclf + cl cell calculations CFCs change in entropy change in kc change of pressure change of temp changing pH chcooh/chcoo- rather than cho/cho- chemical equations chemical properties chiral centres chlorides : NaCl, MgCl, AlCl, SiCl chlorides : nacl, mgcl, alcl, sicl, pcl and pcl and cl -sulfur chloride is not required- chlorination chlorination of alkanes chlorine and its compounds chlorine with oxidation state plus7 chloroalkanes chloroethane chromatography cis-trans isomers cl + o clo + o classification of reaction classify reaction mechanism climate change clo + o o + cl co - catalytic converters collision theory colour of barium flame coloured and colourless complex colours of complexes combinatorial chemistry is used to synthesize a large number of different compounds and screen them for biological activity, resulting in a combinatorial library -for example the mix and split process whereby polypeptides can be made by every combination Combustion combustion of CH3SH combustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions combustion products compare and explain the following properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding: melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility compare the effect of both the relative sizes and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds compare the relative electronegativity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table comparing HBr and HI comparison of Ba and Mg comparison of Ca and Mg complete combustion complete combustion release max energy complex ions composition of H3plus ion compounds of calcium and barium conc sulfuric acid conc sulfuric acid + sodium iodide conc sulfuric acid + soluble solid to give steamy acidic fumes conc sulphuric acid with NaCl concentrated sulphuric acid concentration concentration in mol dm- is often represented by square brackets around the substance under consideration, eg {chcooh} concentration time graph conjugate base consider chlorofluorocarbons -cfcs- and nitrogen oxides consider equilibria involving one phase, gases or species in aqueous solution-the equilibrium constant is specific to a given system and varies with temperature-no calculation is required consider melting points, boiling points and volatility of similar substances, such as f, cl, br and i, and substances with different types of bonding and different intermolecular forces-students should be aware of the effect of impurities on the melt consider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere-refer to surface catalysis on ice particles consider the special stability of the ring system -heat of combustion or hydrogenation of ch in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene-, as well as benzenes tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions construct a born-haber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change contact process contact process & Kc convert between the amount of substance -in moles- and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units copper purification covalent bond covalent bonding covalent character of ionic bonds covalent compounds cracking cracking - similar use of equipment cross reference with topics , and -data for all these properties are listed in the data booklet-explanations for the first four trends should be given in terms of the balance between the attraction of the nucleus for the electrons and the repulsion cyanide ion cyante ion d acid rain d block d compare reducing and photochemical smog d compare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking water with chlorine and ozone d describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide d describe the formation and depletion of ozone by natural processes d describe the greenhouse effect d describe the influence of sewage, detergents and fertilisers on the growth of aquatic plants, and the effect of their subsequent decomposition on oxygen concentration -eutrophication- d describe the properties required for sun-screening compounds d describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking water d describe the sources of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulates and hydrocarbons in the atmosphere d describe the steps in the catalysis of o depletion by cfcs and nox d discuss methods for the reduction of primary air pollution d discuss the alternatives to cfcs in terms of their properties d discuss the demand for fresh water and reasons for the inadequacy of its supply d discuss the different approaches to expressing toxicity d discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in water d discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them d discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air quality d discuss the increasing use of tertiary treatment d discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global warming d discuss ways to obtain fresh water from sea water using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange d discuss ways to reduce the amount of water used and to recycle water d dissolved oxygen in water d distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in water d explain the dependence of o and o dissociation on the wavelength of light d greenhouse effect and global warming d list the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects d list the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lowering of ozone concentration d outline biological oxygen demand -bod- as a measure of oxygen - demanding wastes in water d outline the effects of primary air pollution on health d outline the formation of secondary pollutants in photochemical smog d outline the importance of dissolved oxygen in water d outline the influence of particulates on the earths surface temperature d outline the primary and secondary stages of sewage treatment and state what is removed during each stage d outline the reasons for greater ozone depletion in polar regions d outline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds d ozone depletion d primary air pollution d smog d state the environmental effects of ozone depletion d state the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted water d state what is meant by acid rain and outline its origins d toxic substances in water d waster water treatment d water suitable for drinking d-block d-block elements -first row d-block elements -first row- dative covalent dative covalent bonds decolourises aqueous bromine decomposition of hydrogen iodide decomposition of limestone decomposition of magnesium nitrate decomposition of nitrate deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents deduce changes in {h+-aq-} when the ph of a solution changes by more than one ph unit deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the equilibrium constant deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group , or metal and a group , or non-metal deduce the products for the electrolysis of a molten salt deduce the relationship between the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table deduce {h+-aq-} and {oh--aq-} for water at different temperatures given kw values deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction define acids and bases according to the bronsted-lowry theory define activation energy -ea- and explain that reactions occur when reacting species have e > ea define and apply the terms lewis acid and lewis base define and use the terms standard state and standard enthalpy change of formation -d hf q - define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain define ph, poh and pkw define standard free energy change of reaction -dgq - define the term average bond enthalpy define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials define the term half-life and calculate the half-life for first-order reactions only define the term lattice enthalpy define the term ligand define the term molar mass -m- and calculate the mass of one mole of a species define the term rate of reaction and describe the measurement of reaction rates define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of reaction - define the terms mass number -a-, atomic number -z- and isotope define the terms oxidising agent and reducing agent define the terms rate constant and order of reaction define the terms rate-determining step, molecularity and activated complex define the terms relative molecular mass -mr- and relative atomic mass -ar- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration -g dm-- and mol dm-- define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm- and mol dm- deflection dehydration of alcohols delocalisation of electrons delocalized pi electrons density of a mixture of gases derive the expression ka x kb = kw and use it to solve problems for any weak acid and its conjugate base and for any weak base and its conjugate acid derive the rate expression for a reaction from data describe a buffer solution in terms of its composition and behaviour describe and compare solids, liquids and gases as the three states of matter describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish between strong and weak acids and bases, and to describe and explain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell describe and explain how information from a ih nmr spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound describe and explain how information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances describe and explain the application of equilibrium and kinetics concepts in the haber process and the contact process describe and explain the changes which take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions describe and explain the collision theory describe and explain the difference between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum describe and explain the differences between strong and weak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction with water and conductivity describe and explain the molecularity for the sn and sn mechanisms describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points describe and explain the periodic trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity and melting points for the alkali metals describe and explain the sn and sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution describe and explain the structure of benzene using chemical and physical evidence describe and explain the structures and properties of diamond, graphite and fullerene describe and explain the use of electrolysis in electroplating describe complete and incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons describe how complexes of d-block elements are formed describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell describe how the arrhenius equation can be used to determine the activation energy and the arrhenius constant -a- describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the c scale describe how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and whether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed describe metallic bond formation and explain the physical properties of metals describe qualitatively how an acid-base indicator works describe qualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas describe qualitatively the relationship between the rate constant -k- and temperature -t- describe s and p bonds describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in describe the covalent bond as the result of electron sharing describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d-block elements describe the features of a homologous series describe the ionic bond as the result of electron transfer leading to attraction between oppositely charged ions describe the maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curve describe the qualitative effects of changes of temperature pressure and concentration on the position of equilibrium and value of the equilibrium constant describe the relationship between mechanism, order, rate-determining step and activated complex describe the standard hydrogen electrode describe the types of intermolecular force -hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole attraction and van der waals forces- and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules describe ways of preparing buffer solutions determination of structure determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the equivalence point of the titration and ka -or pka- values for possible indicators determine the electron arrangement up to z = determine the empirical formula and/or the molecular formula of a given compound determine the enthalpy change of a reaction which is the sum of two or more reactions with known enthalpy changes determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess when quantities of reaction substances are given determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols using acidified potassium dichromate -vi- solution determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions determine the relative strengths of acids or their conjugate bases from ka or pka values determine the structure for the conjugate acid -or base- of any bronsted-lowry base -or acid- determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups and gain electrons determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups , and lose electrons DHA different kinds of bonding diol formation dipole dipoles direct substitution using simultaneous equations and a graphical method can be used-the logarithmic form of the arrhenius equation is : discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non-metallic, of the elements across period discuss the relationships between lewis structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation -sp, sp and sp- discuss the similarities in chemical nature of elements in the same group displacement reactions displacement reactions of metals and halogens-see - provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity-standard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not required disproportionation disproportionation of HIO dissociation dissociation of PCl5 distinguish between aqueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or basic using the ph scale distinguish between atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass distinguish between coefficients and subscripts distinguish between homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary halogenoalkanes distinguish between the terms group and period distinguish between the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non-spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell distribution of molecular speeds double bonds double bonds formed by a s and a p bond double sulfate draw a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell draw and analyze graphical representation for zero-, first- and second- order reactions draw and deduce lewis -electron dot- structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom draw and explain a graph showing ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving strong acids and bases draw and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions with and without catalysts draw and explain qualitatively maxwell-boltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures\\ draw and explain the general shapes of graphs of ph against volume of titrant for titrations involving monoprotic acids and bases draw and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms with one of the following functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane draw structural formulas and state the names for straight-chain alkenes -cnhn, where n is between and - draw structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to c draw the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the px, py and pz orbitals duplicate dynamic equilibrium ea graph ecell effect of catalyst effect of temperature effects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps eg eg-{fe-ho-}+ º {fe-oh--ho-}+ + h+ electrolysis electrolysis of aluminium electrolysis of brine electrolysis of copper sludge electrolysis of strontium bromide electrolytic cell electron electron affinity electron arrangement electron configuration electron configuration of atoms electron density electron orbitals electron structure electronegativity electronegativity trend Mg Al Si and P electronic configuration electronic structure electrophile electrophiles electrophilic addition electroplating em spectrum emf of cell empirical formula empirical formula from the percentage composition empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data encourage the use of state symbols in chemical equations endothermic endothermic reaction energy change energy density plots energy of orbitals enthalpy and entropy enthalpy change enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction enthalpy change of an acid-base reaction could be investigated enthalpy change of atomisation enthalpy change of combustion enthalpy change of formation enthalpy change of neutralisation enthalpy changes enthalpy changes are measured in joules -j- and are often quoted in kj mol- or either a reactant or a product enthalpy profile entropy entropy and redox entropy change system entropy decrease enzymes equation equations showing the formation of products at each electrode should be given equilibria equilibrium equilibrium concentration equilibrium constant equilibrium partial pressures equilibrium yield ester esterification esters ethanal ethanoic acid ethanoic acid -chcooh- and methyl methanoate -hcooch- propanal -chchcho- and propanone -chcoch- ethoxy alkane examples include : examples include hydrogenation using metals -see - and acid catalyzed formation of esters examples include increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin, and increased risk of heavy sedation with any drug that has a sedative effect on the central nervous system examples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate-students should be able to write balances equations for neutralization reactions and know that antacids are often combined with alginates-which produce a neutralizing examples should include o, n, co, ch -ethene- and ch -ethyne- examples should include salts formed from the four possible combinations of strong and weak acids and bases-the effect of the charge density of the cations in groups , , and d-block elements should also be considered, examples should include species with non-bonding as well as bonding electron pairs, eg co, so, ch, ch, co- and no- examples such as no-, no-, co-, o, rcoo- and benzene can be used--these could also be dealt with through the resonance approach- examples used should involve the transfer of only one proton exhaust fumes exothermic exothermic and endothermic reactions exothermic reaction experimental processes - barium chloride + silver nitrate experimental processes - salt preparation explain how the isotopes of an element differ explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to the energy levels of electrons explain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific quantities of either reactants or products explain that functional groups can exist as isomers explain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction explain the physical properties of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in the third period -na ar- in terms of their bonding and structure explain the relative inertness of alkanes explain why some complexes of d-block elements are coloured explanations are only required for the first elements, although general principles can extend tot he whole of the periodic table-for example, students should know or be able to predict that k is in group using z = , but explore different reactions operating at constant pressure -open containers--use of the bomb calorimeter is not required extracting metals extraction of metals EZ isomers factors affecting particles that have sufficient energy to react factors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis factors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration-suitable examples for electrolysis include water, aqueous sodium chloride and aqueous copper -ii- sulfate fe in the haber process feasibility feasibilty features include a general formula and neighbouring members differing by ch, with similar chemical properties and with a gradation in physical properties fertilizers few reactions involve just one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate-orders of reactions and rate laws are not required fireworks - what is the equation first ionisation energies flame test flammable or poisonous fluorine fluoroalkanes for example : for example, or for z = for primary treatment filtration, flocculation and sedimentation should be covered-for secondary treatment mention the use of oxygen and bacteria -eg-the activated sludge process- formation formula formulae fossil fuel combustion fourth ionisation energy and reactions with cold water fractional distillation free radical free radical substitution from a given equation, identify a single factor which affects the value of ds and predict the sign of ds fuel cell fuel cells functional groups functional groups in full and condensed forms are required, eg : gas gas laws gas phase reaction to produce ammonia gas volumes gases generally a drug or medicine is any chemical which does one or more of the following: geometric -cis-trans- isomers are not required geometric isomers complexes giant covalent structure giant molecular structure given a chemical equation and the initial amounts of two or more reactants : given the quantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution -in grams, moles or in terms of concentration-, determine the quantity of another species global warming graphs graphs of changes in concentration, volume or mass against time should be interpreted qualitatively green chemistry greener processes greenhouse effect and global warming greenhouse gases greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar radiation but absorb the heat radiation from the earth, maintaining a mean global temperature-the greenhouse effect is a normal and necessary condition for life on earth group 1 group 1 and group 2 group 2 carbonates group 2 metal nitrate group 2 redox group 7 group 7 redox group trends haber and contact process haber process half filled set of p orbitals half life half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h%2B-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations half-equations and oxidation numbers may be used-h+-aq- and ho should be used where necessary to balance half-equations halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- with silver ions halides halides and conc acids halogen + NaOH halogen salt halogen salt reactions halogenoalkane halogenoalkane -primary secondary or tertiary halogenoalkane with ammonia halogenoalkanes halogenoalkanes - bond polarity halogens -clbr and i- with halide ions -cl-, br- and i-- halogens as reducing agents hesss law heterogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in different phases higher level homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures homogeneous catalyst - reactants and catalyst are in the same phase homologous series homologous series IR spectra homolytic bond breaking homolytic fission HPLC hybridisation hybridization hybridization should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding-students should consider sp, sp and sp hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals hydration of alkene hydrocarbon hydrocarbons hydrocarbons - catalytic converters hydrogen bonding hydrogen bonding IR spectrum hydrogen halides hydrogen halides thermal stability hydrogen ion concentration hydrogenation hydrolysis hydrolysis and osmotic pressure hydrolysis of ester hydrolysis of halogenoalkanes hydrolysis of methyl ethanoate I dissolved in hydrocarbon ideal gas ideal gas behaviour ideal gas equation ideal gas law identifications using silver nitrate and conc ammonia soln identify compound with only 4 carbon atoms identify metal identify mineral identify organic liquid which reacts with phosphorus chloride identify oxides and chlorides identify period 3 oxides identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in a given acid-base reaction identify the limiting reactant identify the mole ratios of any two species in a balanced chemical equation identify the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values identify the shape and bond angles for species with two and three negative charge centres identify whether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers identify whether or not a compound could act as a bronsted-lowry acid or base identify which elements are considered to be typical of the d-block elements identify which of two or more aqueous solutions is more acidic or basic, using ph values identify x identify X precipitating with silver nitrate soln if the final state is more stable -lower on the enthalpy level diagram-, this implies that hfinal < hinitial and IM forces in a covalent bond, electron distribution may not be symmetrical and the electron pair may not be equally shared in a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases-cross reference with in general include both natural and man-made sources-balanced equations should be used where possible include cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds include effects on the family, cost to society and the short- and long-term health effects include heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls -pcbs- include potassium-vi-dichromate in the breathalyzer, analysis of the blood or urine by chromatography and absorption of infra-red radiation in the intoximeter include removal of heavy metals and phosphates by chemical precipitation and nitrates by chemical or biological processes include the advantages and disadvantages of ld -lethal dose in % of the population- and maximum daily tolerance include the discovery by fleming and the development by florey and chain include the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body include the increased incidence of skin cancer and eye cataracts, and the suppression of plant growth include the social as well as physiological effects of both short - and long-term use incomplete combustion incomplete outer shell increasing equilibrium yield increasing size increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules with e > ea increases indicators industrial equilibria industrial production of ethanol infrared spectrum intermolecular forces interpretation of graphs of first ionization and successive ionization energies versus atomic number provides evidence for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels introduce the concept of half-equation iodine iodine - colour of species iodine thiosulphate titration iodoform ion ionic and covalent ionic bond ionic bonding ionic bonding - lattice energies ionic character ionic equations ionic radius ionic solid ionic, covalent & metallic ionisation energies ionisation energy ionization energy is defined as the minimum energy required to remove one electron from an isolated gaseous atom ions IR effect on bonds IR effect on bonds in water molecules IR spectrum isomers isomers - esters isotopes isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties-examples such as isotopes of hydrogen IUPAC name ka Kc kc calculation kc expression kc units KEYWORD kinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion whose energy is proportional to absolute temperature-students should be able to describe what happens when the temperature is changed knowledge of how to use daltons law of partial pressures is required-students are not expected to state the law Kp Kp effect of pressure kp effects kp units kw kw = {h+-aq-}{oh--aq-} = x - mol dm- at k but this varies with temperature l = nm l = nm laboratory work using the standard hydrogen electrode is not required lactic acid lattice energies lattice enthalpy lattice structure lattice type ld is the lethal dose required for % of the population lead - some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline lewis structure lewis theory ligand exchange ligands lime and ammonium sulphate lime mortar limestone - damage to buildings limewater and HCl limit examples to one- or two-step reactions where the mechanism is known-students should understand what an activated complex -transition state- is and how the order of a reaction relates to the mechanism limit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only limit this to : limit this to a brief mention of the use of diazepam -valium®-, nitrazepam -mogadon - and fluoxetine hydrochloride -prozac - limit this to acid-base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides with water limit this to n < limit this to the following methods : linear molecule liquid and vapour equilibrium liquid flow liquid-vapor equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium established when the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization-the vapor pressure is independent of the volume of the container, liquid or vapor list and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of aqueous solutions list the characteristic properties of transition elements list the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis lone pairs m and n = integers, m + n = overall order of the reaction magnesium and its compounds magnesium nitrate - thermal decomposition making ester manganate titration many chemical reactions are reversible and never go to completion-equilibrium can be approached from both directions-for a system in equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction and the concentrations of all react mass mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions mass is conserved in all chemical reactions-given a chemical equation and the mass or amount -in moles- of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species mass required mass spectrometry mass spectrum mass spectrum -propanal and propanone mass to charge ratio mass/charge ratio peak in mass spectrum maximum yield maximum yield of chloropropane maximum yield of ethylamine using bromoethane maxwell boltzmann curve maxwell-boltzmann measures ph using a ph meter or ph paper-students should know that ph paper contains a mixture of indicators mechanism of substitution reaction mechanisms melting and boiling points melting point melting temperature mercury - seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries metal hydroxides solubility metal oxides metal salts with sulphuric acid metalic oxides metallic bond metallic bonding metallic bonding - electrical conduction metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity%2c malleability and ductility of metals metallic bonding is explained in terms of a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons-the delocalised electrons should be related to the high electrical conductivity, malleability and ductility of metals methane methods for investigating rates Mg reacting with water mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances -eg prostaglandins- that cause pain, swelling or fever-strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the mno in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide molar concentration molar entropy molar mass mole mole calculations mole concept and avogadros constant mole ratio mole relationships molecular energy distribution curve molecular formula molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and the molar mass molecular formula when given percentage by mass molecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react-a simple treatment is all that is required-cross reference with and moles reacting monosodium glutamate must be negative-energy must be released in going to a more stable state name these using iupac rules-consider both straight and branch-chained alkanes names and symbols of the elements are given in the chemistry data booklet-the history of the periodic table is not required NCl3 need only know that since cs is in group , it has one electron in its outer shell neutralisation neutron ni in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes nitrate fertlizer nitrogen nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide nitrogen fertilizers - pollution nitrogen monoxide nitrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable-halothane--bromo--chloro-,,-trifluoroethane- is widely used but is potentially harmful to the ozone layer NMR NO2 nomenclature of organic compounds non metalic oxides non-polar molecules note : a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note : bronsted-lowry definitions of acids and bases are not required for this sub-topic note : cl - cl is not a lewis structure note: a proton in water can be written as h+-aq- or ho+-aq-; the former is adopted here note: in to half-equations can be used to introduce redox couples, including h+/h and a selection of common couples from the electrochemical series-the daniell cell provides a good illustration of the principles under consideration here nox + so - free radical catalysis to form so nox - catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases nox similar pathway nucleophile nucleophile substitution nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic attack nucleophilic substitution nucleophilic substitution reaction nuclide notation number of atoms number of atoms via moles number of bonding electrons number of bonds number of electrons number of lone pairs of electrons number of neutrons numbers of electrons and neutrons in species nylon o + o o o o o o + o o o o o + o OH bond in water oil industry reformation only a small fraction of the earths water supply is fresh water-of this fresh water, over % is in the form of ice caps and glaciers-water is mainly used for agriculture and industry optical isomers orbital overlap organic chemistry organic compound reacting with a salt organic compound reacting with a sodium hydroxide organic forming precipitate with silver nitrate which dissolves in ammonia organic reaction pathway organic reactions with sodium other functional groups outline the catalytic behaviour of d-block elements and their compounds outline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in aqueous solution outline the characteristics of a system in a state of equilibrium outline the existence of optical isomers outline the use of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts oxidation oxidation and reduction oxidation and substitution oxidation number oxidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by roman numerals, eg-iron -ii- oxide, iron-iii-oxide oxidation numbers should be shown by a sign -+ or --, eg-+ for mn in kmno oxidation of alcohols oxidation of ammonium sulphate oxidation of carbonyl compounds oxidation of organic compounds oxidation of sodium chloride and iodide oxidation reduction disproportionation oxidation states oxidation states of chlorine oxidation states of nitrogen oxides oxides : nao, mgo, alo, sio, po and po, so and so, clo and clo oxides : NaO, MgO, AlO, SiO, Po and So oxides and chlorides having same effect on moist litmus oxides and hydroxides oxides of group II oxidisation oxidising agent oxidising and reducing agents ozone depletion p bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals p-block partial pressures particulates - electrostatic precipitation particulates and so - heterolytic catalysis to form so particulates can lower the temperature by reflecting sunlight parts per million penicillins work by interfering with the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell walls-modifying the side chain results in penicillins which are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme percentage by mass percentage composition percentage composition from the formula of a compound percentage error percentage yield period 3 period 3 elements period 3 elements - periodicity periodic table periodic trends Na Ar -the third period periodic trends na ar -the third period- periodic trends Na to Ar -the third period periodicity pH ph buffer pH of aqueous highest oxides of elements Na to Cl ph strong acid ph strong acod ph weak acid phase equilibrium phenol physical properties pi bond pK polar and non polar molecules polar bond angle polar bonds and molecules polar covalent bonds polar molecules polaring ion polarisation of ions pollutants pollution from exhaust gases polyesters polyethene polymerisation polymers - difficult to dispose position of equilibrium positive entropy change ppm precipitates precipitates with silver nitrate sol precipitation using calcium hydroxide precise values of electronegativity are not required predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series predict and explain, using collision theory, the qualitative effect of particle size, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction predict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape predict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances predict the shape and bond angles for molecules predict the shape and bond angles for molecules with four charge centres on the central atom predict whether a compound of two elements would be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential -e q - values predict whether the entropy change -deltas-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative predict whether the entropy change -ds-- for a given reaction or process would be positive or negative preparation of lead II sulphate prepare an amide preventing SO2 emissions products of electrolysis propanoic acid synthesis properties properties of acids and bases properties of chlorine and iodine properties of non metallic elements property of Be compared to elements below it proton proton number pV=nRT qualitative radiation radical substitution radius of species rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved co; acid rain has a ph of less than -acid rain is caused by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen-students should know the equations for the burning of sulfur and nitrogen and for the formation of hso and hso random and systematic errors rate = k{a}m{b}n rate constant rate constant units rate equation rate expression rate of hydrolysis rate of reaction rate of reaction can be defined as the decrease in the concentration of reactants per unit time or the increase in the concentration of product per unit time rates rates experiment rates of reaction rates of reaction - suitable technique reacting chlorine with NaOH reacting masses reaction between bromine and sodium iodide reaction causing environmental damage reaction mechanism reaction of conc sulphuric with KBr reaction of Mg with steam reaction pathway for reversible reaction reaction profile reaction profile leading to highest yield reaction with sodium reaction with water reactions reactions of acids reactions of bronsted-lowry acids and bases reactions of chlorine reactions of ethanal reactions of the halogens with alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction with ammonia solution are not required reactions with Br Fehlings and K2Cr2O7 reactions with concentrated sulphuric acid reactivity reactivity of nitrogen redox redox equations redox involving thiosulphate redox titration reducing agent reducing power of halides reducing power of hydrogen halides reduction half equation reduction of a metal refer to bond enthalpies-see refer to the amount of oxygen needed to decompose waste matter over a definite period of time-no distinction between biological and biochemical oxygen demand will be made refer to the following equations refer to the following oxides and chlorides : refer to the thalidomide case as an example of what can go wrong-the use of combinatorial chemistry is not required here, but is covered in b reference should be made to hunds rule reflux reflux with NaOH - propanone plus HNO3 plus silver nitrate gives cream ppt relate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy relate integral values of ph to {h+-aq-} expressed as powers of ten-calculation of ph from {h+-aq-} is not required relate positive eq values for spontaneous reactions to negative dgq values -see - relate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table relationship between mechanism and rate-determining step relative atomic mass relative atomic mass from general gas equation relative atomic mass from isotropic comp relative molecular mass from ideal gas equation restrict examples to simple ions eg fe+ and fe+ restrict this to copper plating restrict this to the fact that, if a carbon atom has four different substituents, the molecule exists in two enantiomeric forms that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions-students should be able to identify a chiral -asymmetric centr restrict this to using infrared spectra to show the presence of the functional groups : restrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : restrict this to using nmr spectra to determine the number of different environment in which hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment-splitting patters are not required restrict this to variable oxidation states, complex ion formation, coloured compounds and catalytic properties reversible reactions ring structures s and p bonds s block carbonate and hydroxide safety salt bridge salt hydrolysis salt ph salts sc and zn are not typical second ionisation energies see and shape of molecule shapes of complexes shapes of molecules shapes of molecules and ions should be considered silicon tetrachloride silver halide similarity of Al and Si similarity of Li to Mg simple molecular simple molecular lattice skeletal formula Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution reactions Sn2 reaction sodium sodium bromide with conc sulfuric acid sodium iodide reacting with conc sulfuric sodium plus citric acid solubility solubility in alkanes solubility of alcohol solubility of aluminium oxide in NaOH sol solubility of hydroxides and sulphates solubility of magnesium hydroxide in ammonium chloride soln solubility of silver compounds solutions solve homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expression for kc solve solution stoichiometry problems some teachers may wish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not required sox - alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur-containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone-based fluidized beds specific heat capacity specific proteins on the hiv virus bind to receptor protein on certain white blood cells -t cells--because of the ability of the hiv viruses to mutate and because their metabolism is linked closely with that of the cell, effective treatment with antivir specified strong acids are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid-specified weak acids are ethanoic acid and carbonic acid -aqueous carbon dioxide--specified strong bases are all group hydroxides and barium hydroxide-specified weak bases ar splitting hydrocarbons using hot acidified potassium manganate VII spontaneity spontaneity - activation energy spontaneity of a reaction spontaneous reactions square planar shape stability stable isotopes standard electrode standard electrode potential standard electrode potentials standard enthalpy change standard enthalpy change is heat transferred under standard conditions - pressure kpa, temperature k-only standard enthalpy change of atomisation standard enthalpy change of formation standard enthalpy change of reaction standard enthalpy changes of reaction standard free energy change of formation standard hydrogen electrode state and explain how evidence from first and successive ionization energies accounts for the existence of the main energy levels and sub-levels state and explain how the ph range of an acid-base indicator relates to its pka value state and explain the effect of a catalyst on an equilibrium reaction state and explain the equilibrium established between a liquid and its own vapor state and explain the factors which increase the disorder -entropy- in a system state and explain the low reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of c-h and c-c bonds state and explain the meaning of the term hybridisation state and explain the qualitative relationship between vapor pressure and temperature state and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vaporization, boiling point and intermolecular forces state and explain the relationship between ka and pka and between kb and pkb state and explain the relationship between oxidation numbers and the names of compounds state and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength state and explain whether salts form acidic, alkaline or neutral aqueous solutions state and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and state and predict the shape and bond angles using the vsepr theory for - and -negative charge centers state how orbitals are labelled state that alkanes can react with halogens and distinguish between homolytic and heterolytic fission state that each change of one ph unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration {h+-aq-} state that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process state that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techniques state that transition metals can form more than one ion state the aufbau principle state the equation for the reaction of any weak acid or weak base with water, and hence derive the ionization constant expression state the equilibrium constant expression -kc- for a homogeneous reaction state the expression for the ionic product constant of water -kw- state the ideal gas equation, pv=nrt state the names of alkanes up to c state the number of orbitals at each energy level state the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom state the principles of a mass spectrometer and outline the main stages in its operation state the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic state the relationship between the amount of substance -in moles- and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass state the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals state the relative mass and relative charge of protons, electrons and neutrons state the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number state what is meant by the delocalisation of p electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some substances state whether a given acid or base in strong or weak state whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign of dgq states of matter states of water stereoisomers stoichiometry stress the importance of the bodys natural healing processes and the placebo effect stress the similarity of all three drugs and compare them to the indole ring stress the simple modification to the structure of morphine which results in the semi-synthetic drug, heroin strong and weak acids and bases strongest forces structural and stereoisomers structural formula structural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding between atoms-for example, for pentane : structural isomer structure & properties structures structures of allotropes of carbon student should be able to calculate the heat change for a substance given the mass, specific heat and temperature change students must be able to draw a stepwise mechanism-examples of nucleophiles should include - cn, -oh and nh for each reaction type students need only know that in complexes the d orbitals are split into two sets at different energy levels and the electronic transitions that take place between them are responsible for their colours students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes -see --interpretation of fragmentation patterns is not required students should be able to define and recognize a free radical-mechanisms are not required students should be able to draw a diagram of a simple half-cell and show how two half-cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a whole cell-suitable examples of half-cells are mg, zn, fe and cu in solutions of their ions students should be able to draw an energy-level diagram, show transitions between different energy levels and recognize that the lines in a line spectrum are directly related to these differences-an understanding of convergence is expected-series should students should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table students should be able to predict the direction of electron flow in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell students should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different liquids when given the physical properties, or vice versa-cross reference with students should be able to show the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory students should be aware that cis- and trans-isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the two different isomers can have different pharmacological effects-the anti-cancer drug cisplatin is a good example students should be familiar with at least one harmful effect of each of the substances in d students should describe how reactions occur students should know that not all collisions lead to a reaction students should know the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level -up to z = --no knowledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is required-the term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level students should realize that information from only one technique is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure students should recognize the type of hybridisation present in each allotrope and the delocalisation of electrons in graphite and c fullerene subatomic particles subatomic particles in electric field sublimation subsequent ionisation energies substitution substitution reaction successive ionisation energies such compounds should contain conjugated double bonds, eg-paraaminobenzoic acid -paba-, so that absorption of ultraviolet light is possible suggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in aqueous solution suitable examples are : {fe-ho-}+, {fe-cn-}-, {cu-nh-}+, {ag-nh-}+-only monodentate ligands are required suitable for use in fire extinguisher sulphur dioxide sulphur dioxide uses sulphuric acid sulphuric acid as an oxidising agent sustainable chemistry synthesis systematic name temperature change testing for presence of iodine testing halides the accepted values are : the additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage growth of aquatic plants often in the form of algal blooms or, in coastal areas, red tides the atom the comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : the electron pair is attracted by both nuclei leading to a bond which is directional in nature-both single and multiple bonds should be considered-dative covalent bonds are not required the energy needed should be related to the bonding in o and o the equilibrium law the following reactions should be covered : the formation of co and c during incomplete combustion should be related to environmental impacts and oxidation-reduction the formation of complexes -see and - is usually a lewis acid-base reaction the four main methods are oral, rectal, inhalation, and parenteral -by injection--injection may be intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous the greenhouse gases to be considered are ch, ho, co and no which have natural and man-made origins-their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation the half-life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate equation-the integrated rate equation for second-order reactions is not required the hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of ho and hs nh and ph ch, chcho and choh the mass spectrometer the mechanisms of action are not required the members of a conjugate acid-base pair always differ by a single proton -h+--structures of conjugate acid-base pairs should always make clear the approximate location of the proton transferred, eg the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula the movement of particles, the attractive forces between particles and the interparticle spacing should be described-a molecular level description of what happens when evaporation, boiling, condensing, melting and freezing occur should be given-students the numbering system for groups in the periodic table is shown in the data booklet-students should also be aware of the position of the transition metals in the periodic table the ph scale the polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg co, ho the position of equilibrium the predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is sn and for primary halogenoalkanes it is sn-both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes the properties that must be considered are : effects on indicators and reactions of acids with bases, metals and carbonates-bases which are not hydroxides, such as ammonia, soluble carbonates and hydrogencarbonates, should be included-alkalis are bases the relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases with higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces the s and d sub-levels are close in energy-students should know that all d-block elements can show an oxidation state of +-in addition, they should be familiar with the oxidation states of the following : cr -+,+-, mn-+, +-, fe -+- and cu -+- the shape of the molecules / ions and bond angles if all pairs of electrons are shared, and the shape of the molecules/ions if one or more lone pairs surround the central atom, should be considered-examples such as pcl, sf and xef can be used the sign of d hlattice indicates whether the lattice is being formed or broken the Sn and Sn mechanisms in nucleophilic substitution the solubilities of compounds in non-polar and polar solvents should be compared and explained-consider also the solubilities of alcohols in water as the length of the carbon chain increases the term ionization can be used instead of dissociation-solutions of equal concentration can be compared by ph and/or conductivity the term molar mass -in g mol-- can be used for all of these the terms have no units the theory of ph meters is not required the two enantiomers in a racemic mixture of a drug may have very different effects, eg-thalidomide-one enantiomer of thalidomide alleviates morning sickness in pregnant women, whilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus the values of {h+-aq-} or {oh--aq-} are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base then thermal decomposition thermal decomposition of calcium nitrate thermal decomposition of hydrated magnesium nitrate thermal decomposition of limestone thermal decomposition of nitrates thermal decomposition of slaked lime thermal stability of carbonates thermal stability of nitrates thiosulphate - role in photography thiosulphate ions oxidation third ionisation energy titration titration curve buffer region tollens tollens and fehlings reagents treatment should be restricted to : treatment should be restricted to the formation of radicals from the reaction of nitrogen oxides with sunlight and the reaction of these radicals with hydrocarbons, leading to the formation of aldehydes and peroxyacylnitrates -pans- trends trends in group 2 and group 7 trigonal pyramidal shape triple bonds formed by a s and two p bonds uncertainty and significant figures units of Kp unpaired electrons unpaired p orbitals use as catalysts use balanced chemical equations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products use examples of simple two-and three-step processes-students should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but will not be required to state hesss law use hln-aq- û h+-aq- + in--aq- or similar colour a colour b use le chateliers principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of equilibrium-the value of the equilibrium constant -kc- is only affected by temperature-the position of equilibrium may change without the value of the kc changing use notation , use phase equilibrium as an example of dynamic equilibrium involving physical changes use the equation dgq= d hq- t d sq use the relationship between p, v, n and t for gases-students should be familiar with use the study of the period oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction with water-halides and hydrides are not required use the valence shell electron pair repulsion -vsepr- theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons -charge centres- around the central atom-suitable examples are nh, ho and alkanes -eg ch- uses uses for Br uses of lime using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry%2c students should write the lewis structure%2c deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using examples from inorganic as well as organic chemistry, students should write the lewis structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation using ox nos to balance equation van der Waals forces vitamin C vo in the contact process volatile volatility voltaic cell volume needed to completely react volume of gas volume relationships in a gas reaction water of crystallisation weak acid weak acids when kc , products exceed reactants at equilibrium-when kc , reaction goes almost to completion when kc , reactants exceed products at equilibrium-when kc , reaction hardly proceeds where k = rate constant, {a} = concentration of a in mol dm- etc yield yield ammonia	this is topic box
Topic:	TOPIC-acid rainacids and basesactivation energyamount of substanceanalgesicsanalysisanestheticsantacidsantibacterialsantiviralsarenesatomic structurebronsted-lowry acids and basescalculation of enthalpy changescalculationscalculations involving acids and basescarbonylschemical equationschemical propertiescollision theoryd-block elements -first row-delocalisation of electronsdepressantsdetermination of structuredissolved oxygen in waterduplicatedynamic equilibriumelectro chemistryelectron arrangementelectron configuration of atomsenergeticsentropyequationsequilibriumexothermic and endothermic reactionsformulageneral principles of chemistry ii - transition metals and organic nitrogen chemistrygreen chemistrygreenhouse effect and global warminggroup 2group 7hesss lawhomologous serieshybridizationhydrocarbonsindicatorsintermolecular forcesionic bondingionisation energykineticslattice enthalpylewis theorymass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactionsmass spectramass spectra and IRmetallic bondingmetalsmind-altering drugsmole concept and avogadros constantnitrogennucleophilic substitution reactionorganic chemistryorganic chemistry - energeticsorganic chemistry - functional groupsorganic chemistry - halogenoalkanesorganic chemistry - isomersoxidation and reductionozone depletionperiodic tableperiodic trends Na to Ar -the third periodperiodicitypharmaceutical productsphase equilibriumphysical propertiespolar bonds and moleculespollutionpractical skillsproperties of acids and basesquantitative chemistryrate expressionrate of reactionratesreaction mechanismreactivityredoxredox equationssalt hydrolysisshapes of molecules and ionssmogsolutionsspontaneityspontaneity of a reactionstandard electrode potentialsstandard enthalpy changes of reactionstates of matterstereochemistry in drug action and designstimulantsstoichiometrystrong and weak acids and basesstructure and bondingstructures of allotropes of carbonsulfurthe atomthe equilibrium lawthe mass spectrometerthe ph scalethe position of equilibriumtoxic substances in watertransition metalswaster water treatmentwater suitable for drinking	topic box
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