Relativity and particle physics. | |
Introduction to relativity [link] | |
Frames of reference. | |
H.1.1 | Describe what is meant by a frame of reference. |
H.1.2 | Describe what is meant by a Galilean transformation. |
H.1.3 | Solve problems involving relative velocities using the Galilean transformation equations. |
Concepts and postulates of special relativity. | |
H.2.1 | Describe what is meant by an inertial frame of reference. |
H.2.2 | State the two postulates of the special theory of relativity. |
H.2.3 | Discuss the concept of simultaneity. |
Relativistic kinematics. | |
Time dilation. | |
H.3.1 | Describe the concept of a light clock. |
H.3.2 | Define proper time interval. |
H.3.3 | Derive the time dilation formula. |
H.3.4 | Sketch and annotate a graph showing the variation with relative velocity[] of the Lorentz factor. |
H.3.5 | Solve problems involving time dilation. |
Length contraction. | |
H.3.6 | Define proper length. |
H.3.7 | Describe the phenomenon of length contraction. |
H.3.8 | Solve problems involving length contraction. |
Some consequences of special relativity. | |
The twin paradox. | |
H.4.1 | Describe how the concept of time dilation leads to the "twin paradox". |
H.4.2 | Discuss the Hafele-Keating experiment. |
Velocity addition. | |
H.4.3 | Solve one-dimensional problems involving the relativistic addition of velocities. |
Mass and energy. | |
H.4.4 | State the formula representing the equivalence of mass and energy. |
H.4.5 | Define rest mass. |
H.4.6 | Distinguish between the energy of a body at rest and its total energy[] when moving. |
H.4.7 | Explain why no object can ever attain the speed of light in a vacuum. |
H.4.8 | Determine the total energy[] of an accelerated particle. |
Evidence to support special relativity. | |
H.5.1 | Discuss muon decay as experimental evidence to support special relativity. |
H.5.2 | Solve problems involving the muon decay experiment. |
H.5.3 | Outline the Michelson-Morley experiment. |
H.5.4 | Discuss the result of the Michelson-Morley experiment and its implication. |
H.5.5 | Outline an experiment that indicates that the speed of light in vacuum is independent of its source. |
Relativistic momentum and energy. | |
H.6.1 | Apply the relation for the relativistic momentum p = γm0u of particles. |
H.6.2 | Apply the formula EK = (γ-1)m0c² for the kinetic energy[] of a particle. |
H.6.3 | Solve problems involving relativistic momentum and energy. |
General relativity. | |
The equivalence principle. | |
H.7.1 | Explain the difference between the terms gravitational mass and inertial mass. |
H.7.2 | Describe and discuss Einsteins principle of equivalence. |
H.7.3 | Deduce that the principle of equivalence predicts bending of light rays in a gravitational field. |
H.7.4 | Deduce that the principle of equivalence predicts that time slows down near a massive body. |
Spacetime. | |
H.7.5 | Describe the concept of spacetime. |
H.7.6 | State that moving objects follow the shortest path between two points in spacetime. |
H.7.7 | Explain gravitational attraction in terms of the warping of spacetime by matter. |
Black holes. | |
H.7.8 | Describe black holes. |
H.7.9 | Define the term Schwarzschild radius. |
H.7.10 | Calculate the Schwarzschild radius. |
H.7.11 | Solve problems involving time dilation close to a black hole. |
Gravitational red-shift. | |
H.7.12 | Describe the concept of gravitational red-shift. |
H.7.13 | Solve problems involving frequency shifts between different points in a uniform gravitational field. |
H.7.14 | Solve problems using the gravitational time dilation formula. |
Evidence to support general relativity. | |
H.8.1 | Outline an experiment for the bending of EM waves by a massive object. |
H.8.2 | Describe gravitational lensing. |
H.8.3 | Outline an experiment that provides evidence for gravitational red-shift. |
Medical physics. |
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The ear and hearing. | |
I.1.1 | Describe the basic structure of the human ear. |
I.1.2 | State and explain how sound pressure variations in air are changed into larger pressure variations in the cochlear fluid. |
I.1.3 | State the range of audible frequencies experienced by a person with normal hearing. |
I.1.4 | State and explain that a change in observed loudness is the response of the ear to a change in intensity. |
I.1.5 | State and explain that there is a logarithmic response of the ear to intensity. |
I.1.6 | Define intensity and also intensity level (IL). |
I.1.7 | State the approximate magnitude of the intensity level at which discomfort is experienced by a person with normal hearing. |
I.1.8 | Solve problems involving intensity levels. |
I.1.9 | Describe the effects on hearing of short-term and long-term exposure to noise. |
I.1.10 | Analyse and give a simple interpretation of graphs where IL is plotted against the logarithm of frequency for normal and for defective hearing. |
Medical imaging. | |
X-rays. | |
I.2.1 | Define the terms attenuation coefficient and half-value thickness. |
I.2.2 | Derive the relation between attenuation coefficient and half-value thickness. |
I.2.3 | Solve problems using the equation I=I0e-µx. |
I.2.4 | Describe X-ray detection, recording and display techniques. |
I.2.5 | Explain standard X-ray imaging techniques used in medicine. |
I.2.6 | Outline the principles of computed tomography (CT). |
Ultrasound. | |
I.2.7 | Describe the principles of the generation and the detection of ultrasound using piezoelectric crystals. |
I.2.8 | Define acoustic impedance as the product of the density of a substance and the speed of sound in that substance. |
I.2.9 | Solve problems involving acoustic impedance. |
I.2.10 | Outline the differences between A-scans and B-scans. |
I.2.11 | Identify factors that affect the choice of diagnostic frequency. |
NMR and lasers. | |
I.2.12 | Outline the basic principles of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging. |
I.2.13 | Describe examples of the use of lasers in clinical diagnosis and therapy. |
Radiation in medicine. | |
I.3.1 | State the meanings of the terms exposure, absorbed dose, quality factor (relative biological effectiveness) and dose equivalent as used in radiation dosimetry. |
I.3.2 | Discuss the precautions taken in situations involving different types of radiation. |
I.3.3 | Discuss the concept of balanced risk. |
I.3.4 | Distinguish between physical half-life, biological half-life and effective half-life. |
I.3.5 | Solve problems invovling radiation dosimetry. |
I.3.6 | Outline the basis of radiation therapy for cancer. |
I.3.7 | Solve problems involving the choice of radio-isotope suitable for a particular diagnostic or therapeutic application. |
I.3.8 | Solve problems involving particular diagnostic applications. |
Particle physics. |
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Particles and interactions. | |
Description and classification of particles. | |
J.1.1 | State what is meant by an elementary particle. |
J.1.2 | Identify elementary particles. |
J.1.3 | Describe particles in terms of mass and various quantum numbers. |
J.1.4 | Classify particles according to spin. |
J.1.5 | State what is meant by an antiparticle. |
J.1.6 | State the Pauli exclusion principle. |
Fundamental interactions[]. | |
J.1.7 | List the fundamental interactions. |
J.1.8 | Describe the fundamental interactions[] in terms of exchange particles[]. |
J.1.9 | Discuss the uncertainty principle for time and energy in the context of particle creation. |
Feynman diagrams. | |
J.1.10 | Describe what is meant by a Feynman diagram. |
J.1.11 | Discuss how a Feynman diagram may be used to calculate probabilities for fundamental processes. |
J.1.12 | Describe what is meant by virtual particles. |
J.1.13 | Apply the formula for the range R for interactions involving the exchange of a particle. |
J.1.14 | Describe pair annihilaiton and pair production through Feynman diagrams. |
J.1.15 | Predict particle processes using Feynman diagrams. |
Particle accelerators and detectors. | |
Particle accelerators. | |
J.2.1 | Explain the need for high energies in order to produce particles of large mass. |
J.2.2 | Explain the need for high energies in order to resolve particles of small size. |
J.2.3 | Outline the structure and operation of a linear accelerator and of a cyclotron. |
J.2.4 | Outline the structure and explain the operation of a synchrotron. |
J.2.5 | State what is meant by bremsstrahlung (braking) radiation. |
J.2.6 | Compare the advantages and disadvantages of linear accelerators, cyclotrons and synchrotrons. |
J.2.7 | Solve problems related to the production of particles in accelerators. |
J.2.8 | Particle detectors. |
J.2.9 | Outline the structure and operation of the bubble chamber, the photomultiplier and the wire chamber. |
J.2.10 | Outline international aspects of research into high-energy particle physics research. |
Quarks. | |
J.3.1 | List the six types of quark. |
J.3.2 | State the content, in terms of quarks and antiquarks, of hadrons (that is, baryons and mesons). |
J.3.3 | State the quark content of the proton and the neutron. |
J.3.4 | Define baryon number and apply the law of conservation of baryon number. |
J.3.5 | Deduce the spin structure of hadrons (that is, baryons and mesons). |
J.3.6 | Explain the need for colour in forming bound states of quarks. |
J.3.7 | State the colour of quarks and gluons. |
J.3.8 | Outline the concept of strangeness. |
J.3.9 | Discuss quark confinement. |
J.3.10 | Discuss the interaction that binds nucleons in terms of the colour force between quarks. |
Leptons and the standard model. | |
J.4.1 | State the three-family structure of quarks and leptons in the standard model. |
J.4.2 | State the lepton number of the leptons in each family. |
J.4.3 | Solve problems invovling conservation laws[] in particle reactions. |
J.4.4 | Evaluate the significance of the Higgs particle (boson). |
Experimental evidence for the quark and standard models. | |
J.5.1 | State what is meant by deep inelastic scattering. |
J.5.2 | Analyse the results of deep inelastic scattering experiments. |
J.5.3 | Describe what is meant by asymptotic freedom. |
J.5.4 | Describe what is meant by neutral current. |
J.5.5 | Describe how the existence of a neutral current is evidence for the standard model. |
Cosmology and strings. | |
J.6.1 | State the order of magnitude of the temperature[] change of the universe since the Big Bang. |
J.6.2 | Solve problems involving particle interactions in the early universe. |
J.6.3 | State that the early universe contained almost equal numbers of particles and anti-particles. |
J.6.4 | Suggest a mechanism by which the predominance of matter over antimatter has occurred. |
J.6.5 | Describe qualitatively the theory of strings. |